The term diarrhoea includes both the excessively frequent passage of motions, and motions that are unusually soft or liquid. Normal dogs pass motions between one and three times a day and the stools are formed; though on modern canned diets they are usually not completely solid.

A lot of water in the form of digestive juices is added to the food as it passes through the digestive tract, more than 2 pints for every 25 lb body weight (i .e. more than 1 litre per 10 kg), though almost all of this is later reabsorbed. However, if the gut is irritated (by viruses such as that causing distemper, or by irritant poisons, food poisoning or dietary allergies) material may be moved through so rapidly that much of the water cannot be removed. Usually material takes between five and ten hours to pass right through the digestive tract but where there is increased motility this can be reduced to only twenty or thirty minutes. If food cannot be properly digested or absorbed it remains in the intestine and holds water with it, just like a saline laxative (e.g. Epsom salts), so that the dog passes soft motions, remain hungry despite eating more, and gradually loses weight. Undigested materials can ferment in the bowel producing large amounts of gas which the animal subsequently passes.

A lot of fat in the diet can have an Irritant effect because it is broken down to oleic acid which has a similar, though milder, effect to that of ricinoleic acid – the active ingredient of castor oil. Also, certain disease producing bacteria can damage the cell” lining the bowel so that water is lost from them into the bowel contents – just as it is in the human disease of cholera.

In general diarrhoea due to bacteria or food poisoning only lasts for a few days before clearing up spontaneously. Worms are seldom a cause of diarrhoea except in young puppies. In older dogs cancer must be considered as a possible cause, even though this is uncommon. Persistent or recurrent diarrhoea is almost always confined to the larger breeds, especially German Shepherd Dogs (Alsatians), and to a lesser extent Great Danes and Old English Sheepdogs, starting at an early age. There are three main causes for persistent diarrhoea: failure to digest food completely, failure to absorb it into the bloodstream once it has been digested, and, in very nervous dogs, a psychogenic diarrhoea such as also occurs in certain people, particularly at a time of stress.

If foods containing specific substances which the dog cannot effectively deal with, such as lactose in milk and gluten in flour-containing products, are omitted from the diet, a great improvement may result.

In all breeds of dogs, but especially the Collie breeds, and at any age, colitis may be responsible for diarrhoea. Since this disorder involves the large bowel, which is beyond the point where food absorption takes place, hunger and weight loss are not common features. The frequent passage of liquid motions with considerable straining and the presence of mucus (jelly-like material) and even blood (which signifies dysentery) are the tell-tale signs. Often this condition regularly disappears and reappears until eventually it is present continuously.

In all cases where diarrhoea persists, or the animal is passing blood, or is rapidly becoming weak, veterinary attention should be obtained as soon as possible.

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Humans have the distinction of being the only species’ to display their emotions by crying (and incidentally by laughing as well), so although your dog will not be happy about this condition, it is not crying. However, these wet streaks are due to tears (lacrimal fluid) overflowing down the face. On white dogs this condition (epiphora) produces a characteristic ginger-brown stain.

Where this is a long-standing problem unassociated with any irritation or inflammation (such as with injuries, foreign bodies in the eye or rubbing by abnormal eyelashes), it usually arises because the nasolacrimal ducts which normally drain the fluid from the surface of the eyes are unable to take all, or any, of the fluid.

Lacrimal fluid is continuously secreted by a gland above the eyeball for the purpose of washing away micro-organisms and dust from the surface of the eyeball, aided by the occasional wiper action of the eyelids in blinking. In normal dogs the fluid passes down the nasolacrimal duct into the nasal chamber, but if the duct becomes blocked, or if the bulging of the eyeball prevents the fluid reaching the duct opening, as in flat-faced dogs such as Pekingese, Pugs and Bulldogs, it has no alternative but to flow down the front of the face. Placing a drop of the green dye fluorescein on to the eye and watching for its presence at the nostril is used to check for blockage.

In rare cases, usually involving Bedlington Terriers, the drainage holes into the ducts fail to develop. In Toy and Miniature Poodles, the most commonly affected breeds, and Maltese Terriers, a variety of factors can be responsible. The brown-an-white staining in these breeds appears to be due to the presence of porphyrins in the lacrimal fluid, and can be successfully controlled in most cases by the administration of the antibiotic tetracycline which affects porphyrin binding. In general this is more successful than regular bathing or the use of ‘tear-stain removers’.

Blocked ducts can sometimes be unblocked, but this is a time-consuming procedure necessitating a general anaesthetic; on rare occasions even complete surgical reconstruction of the drainage system has been performed.

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The involuntary passage of urine producing constant or intermittent dribbling, of which the animal is often unaware, constitutes true urinary incontinence. It needs to be distinguished from conditions in which so much urine is produced that the animal’s bladder is unable to retain it for any appreciable period. In addition, dogs that have not been adequately house-trained, or in which training has broken down, or which urinate in submission may be confused with incontinent animals.

If the incontinence has been present since birth a congenital abnormality appears likely, possibly affecting the bladder or urethra (the tube which conveys urine from the bladder to the outside) but most often affecting the ureters (the narrow tubes which convey urine from each kidney to the bladder). In the condition of ectopic ureter (more common in bitches), one or both of these tubes opens not into the bladder, as is normal, but directly into the urethra or even the vagina, so that the urine (which is being formed continuously) cannot be retained and continuously trickles out.

Any alteration in the position of the bladder due to pressure from a tumour or following surgery, e.g. spaying can cause incontinence, and another reason why it may arise after spaying is a lack of female sex hormone.

Normal control of the bladder sphincter (the circular band of muscle which opens and closes to allow urine out) can be affected by damage to the pelvic nerves, spinal cord or brain, such as may occur in a road traffic accident. Nervous control may also become defective in elderly animals. If the muscle in the wall of the bladder is replaced by scar tissue after an injury the bladder will be unable to expand as usual, greatly reducing its capacity, so that the sphincter is likely to relax automatically under the pressure of only a small volume of urine.

However, most cases of incontinence in adult dogs occur because the sphincter becomes inflamed and is then unable to close properly. This is usually due either to bacterial infection, more likely in bitches because of their shorter urethra, or to the irritation of calculi (stones) formed in the bladder; sometimes the former will lead to the latter. In severe cases due to either of these causes the urine may appear blood-stained. In male dogs small calculi may pass down the urethra and then partially block it, which in tum leads to some degree of incontinence. In general, Corgis and Dachshunds are most likely to develop calculi, but some breeds have metabolic defects which predispose them to the formation of certain types, particularly Dalmatians (urate calculi) and Irish Terriers and Basset Hounds (cystine calculi).

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The important distinguishing features are that in unconsciousness breathing and the beating of the heart are both present; in death both will have stopped.

An unconscious dog can resemble a dead animal in that there may be no movement for a long period, and during this time it may not respond to such stimuli as noise or pinching. (Dogs that remain unconscious for forty-eight hours after an accident rarely recover.) In both conditions, the muscles relax and become limp, and relaxation of the sphincters of the bladder and anus may permit urine and motions to be passed. Bear in mind that in death the eyes do not close automatically; they may remain open just as they might in unconsciousness, so this cannot be used as a distinguishing sign.

Two signs, however, are characteristic of death. First, the body gradually becomes colder (how cold depends on the temperature of the surroundings), and within three to seven hours the muscles go rigid (rigor mortis), a sure sign of death.

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A Certainly this is likely if the pallor of these visible mucous membranes, together with that of the tongue and inner lining of the eyelids, is present continuously.

Apart from anaemia, the only other important cause of extreme pallor of these membranes is shock. This usually follows some form of injury and is accompanied by other signs which are so obvious (extreme weakness, panting, cold paws even in warm surroundings, trembling and often loss of consciousness) that it is easy to diagnose.

In anaemia there is a deficiency of red blood cells or of the red oxygen carrying pigment (haemoglobin) which the cells contain. The lack of haemoglobin means that the blood is unable to carry sufficient oxygen to the tissues with the result that the animal tires easily and breathes rapidly even after mild exertion. In severe cases the heart beats rapidly even when the dog is resting. Three main causes of anaemia are recognized. One is the severe loss of cells due to bleeding (haemorrhagic anaemia) which can occur suddenly if a major blood vessel is severed. Less obviously, a slow but persistent loss of blood can produce this type of anaemia, for example from a heavy infestation with blood-sucking parasites such as ticks or tropical hookworms, from the use of such drugs as aspirin and indomethacin, or from poisoning with an anti-coagulant poison (such as warfarin or difenacoum) which both damages the blood vessels and prevents the escaping blood from clotting.

Haemolytic anaemia arises from the destruction of red blood cells within the circulation. This may be caused by the organism Leptospira icterohaemorrhagiae (responsible for one type of leptospirosis) or, in certain parts of the world, by the blood parasite Babesia canis. Bacterial toxins, snake venom, long-term treatment with the anticonvulsant drug, phenytoin, and poisoning with phenols (e.g. creosote) and the non-selective weedkiller sodium chlorate can also be responsible. Another reported cause in dogs is eating a large quantity of onions! However, most cases of this type of anaemia in canines are due to the body forming antibodies which destroy its own red blood cells – autoimmune haemolytic anaemia. In Basenjis, and less often in Beagles, an inherited lack of the red blood cell enzyme pyruvate kinase can result in haemolytic anaemia, and another defect producing the same effect is transmitted in members of the Alaskan Malamute breed. The debilitation resulting from cancer is also usually accompanied by a mild anaemia of this type.

Finally, anaemia may be due to a failure of the red bone marrow contained within certain bones to produce sufficient replacement cells to keep pace with natural losses (hypoplastic anaemia). Because each red blood cell survives for about sixteen weeks it can take a long time for this defective production to result in discernible anaemia. It can develop if the dog is deprived of adequate amounts of the raw materials necessary for the production of red blood cells, such as iron, protein, and vitamin B, though true pernicious anaemia has not been detected in dogs.

Damage to the bone marrow can also be responsible for hypoplastic anaemia; rarely this is due to bone marrow tumours or excessive doses of radiation. The most likely causes are lead poisoning and drugs such as oestrogen (female sex hormone) though only in large doses, phenylbutazone (used in arthritis) and the antibiotic chloramphenicol.

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Yes, almost certainly the external ear canal of one or both of his ears is severely inflamed, a condition known as otitis externa but popularly referred to as ‘canker’. (Incidentally, canker has nothing to do with cancer, despite the similarity of spelling.) A number of factors can contribute to this extremely common affliction.

It is normal for wax to be produced by glands in the skin lining the ear canal, and to stop an excessive build-up it is usual for the wax to dry out and be shed from the ear as flakes from time to time. However, the shape and structure of the ear in some breeds prevents efficient wax removal. The pendulous ears of the Cocker Spaniel and Bassett Hound severely restrict ventilation of the canal, and the narrow ear canal of the Miniature Poodle is easily blocked. In some breeds, such as the German Shepherd Dog and the Dachshund, too much wax is produced. Once the ear canal has been impacted with wax, and this is more likely if there is a lot of hair present, inflammation will commence. Bacteria and yeasts (fungal organisms), which are normally present in a passive role, are now provided with suitable moist conditions in which to multiply and they intensify the inflammation.

Ear mites (Otodectes cynotis), which are the most common cause of ear problems in cats, are less often the initiating factor in dogs. Nevertheless whenever they are present they invariably result in considerable head shaking and ear scratching. Ear mites do not penetrate the skin but live and breed on the surface, grazing on the dead skin cells and possibly sucking lymph from the skin vessels. They are so small that with the eye alone they can hardly be distinguished inside the ear canal. However, with a magnifying glass they can be seen as small, whitish specks moving slowly over the lining of the canal. Veterinarians usually use a combined magnifying glass and light source, an auriscope or otoscope, to view the ear. When some of the wax from the ear is placed under a microscope the mites can be easily identified.

At times foreign bodies in the canal (such as pieces of twig or grit, or grass seeds) are responsible for irritation; even the presence of soap or water can promote inflammation. On other occasions an allergic reaction or, rarely, obstruction of the canal by a tumour, is responsible. However, once the condition is established, the secondary bacterial infection and self-inflicted damage produced by head-shaking, scratching and rubbing, create a vicious circle which may have a number of unpleasant sequels:

1. Violent shaking of the head can lead to the ear flaps being struck on nearby objects, resulting in rupture of the blood vessels and the formation of a swelling in the flap (haematoma) due to an accumulation of the blood that leaks out under the skin. This needs to be drained surgically, otherwise the flap will distort into a ‘cauliflower ear’ in healing.

2. The ear drum, a thin sheet of tissue stretching across the bottom of the ear canal, may perforate, allowing infection to spread to the middle ear and even on rare occasions to the inner ear. Though it seldom produces deafness this can disturb the dog’s balance so that it falls over when attempting to walk.

3. In long-standing cases the skin lining the canal becomes thickened and ulcerated, i.e. chronic inflammation supervenes.

To identify and treat the cause the dog is best examined by your veterinary surgeon and, because of the pain this produces, tranquillization or general anaesthesia may be required. Treatment involves thorough cleaning and flushing out of the ear canal, removal of any foreign bodies and the application of appropriate medication – usually in the form of ear drops applied frequently for several days. Usually such drops contain a combination of some of the following: corticosteroids to reduce inflammation, ceruminolytics to dissolve the wax, antibacterial and antifungal drugs, local anaesthetics to relieve the pain, and parasiticides to kill any ear mites. Where mites are involved both ears should be treated even if one appears unaffected, and, because mites are readily transmitted between animals, all the dogs and cats in the household should be treated simultaneously, whether they are showing signs yet or not. Mites can also travel to other parts of the body and so it is a good idea to treat the whole body with a parasiticidal spray or powder.

In chronic cases surgery is necessary to open up the canal to permit adequate ventilation, drainage and the removal of diseased tissue.

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Scratching is the dog’s response to an itch in the skin, otherwise called pruritus. Itching can have a number of causes: allergic reactions, impacted anal sacs, the bites of insects or mites, infection with bacteria and foreign bodies in the skin. All of these causes the release of proteolytic enzymes which attack nerve endings in the skin and trigger the release of electrical impulses that then pass via nerves to the brain. In the dog, scratching is most commonly due either to the irritation of flea infestation, or to ear mites.

It is important to establish the true cause and to remove it if possible, so consult your veterinary surgeon at an early stage.

Scratching, and also biting and chewing, can result in extensive self­trauma, and while the cause is being brought under control it may be necessary to administer internally, or apply externally, drugs (often corticosteroids) to control the itch. On rare occasions an animal experiences such severe irritation due to inflammation of a peripheral nerve (neuritis) that in an attempt to obtain relief it will mutilate itself to the point of causing irreparable damage, e.g. chewing away its feet. This is seen in its most extreme form in the fatal disease known as pseudorabies.

It may be necessary to protect the area which is being damaged by covering it, or, to prevent further biting, to fit a muzzle or an Elizabethan collar. Self-mutilation is invariably made worse by boredom or depression, so that whenever possible a scatching dog should be distracted, for example by being fed, played with or taken for a walk.

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Yes, they do. Dog hairs undergo a cycle of growth, unlike the claws which grow continuously. In the first stage the hair grows by the multiplication of cells at the bottom of the hair follicle deep in the skin; this phase is called anagen. This is followed by a period when the growth stops and the hair is retained in the follicle; this phase is called telogen. These non-growing or dead hairs, called ‘club’ hairs, are less firmly anchored than the growing hairs and consequently are more easily removed. Removal may be by grooming or simply by friction from sitting or lying. Eventually the cells which produce the hair begin to multiply again and a new hair is formed. This new hair grows up the follicle, alongside the old club hair if this is still present, though as the new hair emerges at the surface the old hair becomes detached and is shed.

In the dog, as in the cat and man, the growth of hairs is not synchronized, i.e. they are not all at the same stage at the same time. Adjacent hairs can be at any stage in the growth cycle – the so-called mosaic pattern of growth. Although the length of the hair cycle varies between breeds the greatest activity (i.e. the most shedding of old hairs and growth of new ones) occurs during those periods of the year when there is a marked change in the number of hours of daylight, namely late spring and autumn. The periodicity of light influences hair growth in dogs more than the environmental temperature, though its effect is less in spayed bitches than in entire animals. More hair is shed in the spring and more hairs grow in the late autumn, with the result that the winter coat is denser than the summer one. However, many pet dogs kept indoors with artificial lighting will shed hair all the year round.

The maximum recorded rate at which canine hair grows varies from 1/60 inch (0.4 mm) per day in Beagles to half that in Greyhounds. Consequently with the alternation of growth and resting phases it usually takes about four months for a short coat to completely re-grow after shaving, but a long coat, such as that of an Afghan Hound, may take eighteen months.

However, in generalised disease or ill health the total number of hairs in the resting phase increases, so that the increased shedding of hair can be a sign of illness. Also, in some hormonal (endocrine) disorders, many hairs enter the resting stage at the same time and are therefore shed simultaneously, and the profuse shedding of hair by bitches in the weeks after giving birth is also due to a change in hormone levels. Severe damage to hairs, for example by ringworm, may cause them to break off, leaving stubble.

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This certainly seems to be the case with most normal healthy dogs. However, there is no evidence that the skin on the nose contains any special moisture-producing glands. The moisture on the nose seems to come primarily from a large gland, the lateral nasal gland, at the back of each nasal chamber. The watery secretion from this gland passes down a narrow duct which opens about l/4 inch (2cm) inside the nostril. The ‘tears’ (lacrimal fluid) from the surface of the eyeball drain into another duct (nasolacrimal duct) which opens a little in front of that coming from the lateral nasal gland. In addition, there are other glands in the lining of the nasal chambers. Licking (which dogs can only do upwards, towards the nose, never downwards, towards the chin) also serves to wet the nasal skin.

The function of a wet nose is to increase the moisture content of the air being inhaled and improve the animal’s sense of smell. The lateral nasal gland also provides a large proportion of the water which is evaporated for cooling purposes in the panting dog. In dogs, especially German Shepherd Dogs (Alsatians), which are in a stressful situation (i.e. feeling anxious) reflex stimulation of this gland can result in liquid dripping from the nose, sufficient even to form a puddle on the floor.

Dogs that are dehydrated as a result of illness or a lack of liquid to drink, particularly those with obviously high body temperatures (e.g. in fevers), characteristically have a dry nose. Two factors are involved:

1. Dehydrated dogs produce less secretion, including both saliva and nasal secretion.
2. An increased body temperature will increase the evaporation of moisture from the nose.

However, a dry nose is not reliable as a sign of illness; a dog that has been lying in front of a fire or radiator will also have a dry nose, and following recovery from canine distemper many dogs will have permanently hard, dry and cracked nasal skin. But if the dry nose is accompanied by other abnormal signs, such as listlessness and a lack of appetite, then it would be sensible to seek your vet’s advice. Conversely, a wet nose can be found in an animal with fever if it has recently had its nose in the water bowl. (Incidentally, the ridges on the nose pad form a pattern as unique in each dog as a human fingerprint.)

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The healthy dog should appear alert and interested in what is happening in its immediate vicinity, moving its eyes and ears in response to movements and sounds. It should be eager to exercise and play and to explore new territory with its owner, and it should not become tired easily. The dog should present a well-groomed appearance with a clean, glossy coat and bright, sparkling eyes which have no evidence of discharge at their corners. The skin should be pliable and unbroken, the nails not overgrown and the ears clean. The body should be firm and well muscled and warm to the touch with no sensitive areas.

The animal should be neither thin nor overweight, and its movements should appear easy and supple without signs of pain or stiffness. Except when naturally pigmented the tongue and gums should be pale pink, and the teeth clean and white and the breath unobjectionable.

The dog’s appetite should be good, but not ravenous, and its thirst should not be excessive. There should be no difficulty in picking up or swallowing its food. Urine and motions should be passed without straining, and be normal in appearance (i.e. no abnormal colors or blood, the stools formed rather than of a soft or liquid consistency). There should be no soiling of the coat or bedding and animals should not have to pass urine or motions frequently, e.g. should be able to go through the night without doing so.

Breathing should also be easy, without coughing, wheezing or exaggerated movements of the chest, and not unduly rapid (i.e. panting). Finally, the pulse rate and the temperature should be normal if taken; the pulse varies with body size from around 120 beats per minute in small breeds to seventy per minute in the largest, but the temperature is around 101.5 of (38.5 °C) in all except the Mexican Hairless and Chinese Crested breeds in which it is 4 of (2.2°C) higher. Both pulse and temperature, though, are slightly raised in very young animals and in animals that are excited or have been exercised.

Of course, for a dog to be completely healthy there should be no deviation from normality. It is not unusual, however, to find dogs that appear healthy in all respects save one; very thin dogs who are still extremely active, or dogs with skin disorders whose appetite and other behavior is perfectly normal. Nevertheless, even a single abnormal sign should be investigated.

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